TIMSS and student performance: a cross-cutting analysis of the determinants of learning in mathematics

Abstract

This study examines the impact of three major pedagogical practices—formula memorization, active listening to the teacher, and the contextualization of mathematics through real-life situations—on students’ mathematics achievement, using data from four TIMSS cycles (2003, 2007, 2011, and 2015). The objective is to understand how these commonly employed teaching strategies shape learning in different educational contexts, and to identify which practices are most strongly associated with improved student performance. To account for the hierarchical structure of the TIMSS dataset, multilevel modeling was used, enabling a clear distinction between individual-level influences and class-level or school-level contextual effects.

The findings consistently show that both memorization and active listening are positively associated with higher mathematics achievement. These results highlight the importance of structured guidance, explicit instruction, and teacher-led explanations in promoting the acquisition of mathematical competencies. Students who report frequently memorizing formulas or paying close attention to their teachers typically achieve higher scores, even after controlling for socio-economic background, parental education, and other contextual variables. In contrast, real-life contextualization exhibits a negative association with achievement. This relationship should not be interpreted as evidence of pedagogical inefficiency; rather, it reflects its frequent use as a compensatory strategy in classrooms with lower-achieving students, indicating pedagogical differentiation rather than causality.

The study also shows that class-level differences account for a substantial proportion of the overall variance in achievement, underscoring the central role of collective classroom environments, instructional coherence, and teacher expectations. These findings emphasize the need for educational systems to balance explicit instruction, foundational skill development, and adaptive strategies tailored to student needs. Overall, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of effective instructional practices and offers valuable insights for educational policy and teacher training, particularly in systems facing persistent challenges in mathematics learning outcomes.